If you are trying to cut down on plastics and choose more natural materials, cotton probably feels like one of the safer bets. However, “100% cotton” isn’t 100% safe when it comes to clothing, sheets, and textiles. This label claim doesn’t tell you how the crop was grown or what happened during manufacturing.
USDA data show just how heavily pesticides are used in cotton farming. In 2025, herbicides were applied to 88% of planted cotton acres and insecticides to 39% [1]. Plus, cotton can also be bleached, dyed, softened, printed, and treated with finishing chemicals after harvesting. Knowing what happens at each stage can help you make more informed choices about the clothing, bedding, towels, and other cotton products you bring home.
Why Are Pesticides Used to Grow Cotton?
Cotton starts as a crop, and crops have to contend with weeds, insects, and disease. Whether it's other plants, animals, bugs, or fungi, farmers need to protect their crops. Since these are different types of threats, a majority of conventional farmers use a variety of pesticide types for their crops.
The USDA’s 2025 Agricultural Chemical Use Survey looked at 13 states representing 97% of U.S. cotton acreage. Farmers applied herbicides to 88% of planted cotton acres, while insecticides were used on 39%. Fungicides were used on about 1%, while plant-growth regulators, defoliants, and related chemicals were applied to 54% [1].
That heavy pesticide use matters because cotton does not end its life in the field. We use it in products that sit directly on or inside the body, including clothing, underwear, diapers, bedding, gauze placed on open wounds, dental cotton rolls, and tampons used in highly sensitive areas.
Cotton has many close-contact uses where leftover chemicals or processing contaminants could create opportunities for exposure. That makes how cotton is grown, processed, washed, and tested especially relevant for products that stay against the skin or touch sensitive areas.
Where Was Your Cotton Grown?
US pesticide data only tell part of the story. The United States produces about 11% of the world’s cotton, which means nearly 9 out of every 10 bales are grown somewhere else.
China, India, and Brazil all produce more cotton than the U.S. Pesticide rules, banned chemicals, worker protections, and enforcement can vary by country. So two products labeled “100% cotton” may come from very different farming systems.
Unfortunately, figuring out where your cotton actually came from is not always as simple as checking the tag. US textile labels generally tell you where a product was processed or manufactured, not necessarily where the cotton plant was grown. A shirt made in one country could contain cotton grown in another, while fabric may be spun, dyed, or sewn somewhere else entirely.
When a brand does not clearly disclose its cotton source, look beyond the “Made in” label. Check the company’s website for information about farms, suppliers, pesticide policies, and traceability. Certifications such as GOTS and other verified organic cotton standards can also help fill in information that the clothing tag leaves out.
Common Pesticides Used to Grow Cotton
Cotton has plenty of competition in the field. Insect pests such as bollworms, aphids, and thrips can damage leaves, buds, and cotton bolls. Meanwhile, fast-growing weeds compete with the crop for water, sunlight, and nutrients. Farmers use different pesticides depending on the threat. Insecticides target insects, while herbicides are used to keep weeds from overtaking the crop [2].
According to the USDA, the most commonly sprayed pesticides in cotton fields include:
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Glyphosate: Used on 55% of planted acres — Contact with glyphosate can irritate the skin and eyes, while swallowing a large amount may cause nausea and vomiting. People who mix or spray it often may also experience nose, throat, or breathing irritation [3]. Experts disagree about its cancer risk. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) says approved uses do not pose a human-health concern, while the World Health Organization’s cancer agency classifies it as “probably carcinogenic to humans [4][5].
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Glufosinate: Used on 35% of planted acres — Large or accidental exposures can affect the brain and nervous system, causing nausea, vomiting, dizziness, confusion, shaking, and, in severe poisoning cases, seizures. The greatest concern is for people who mix or spray it and may inhale it, get it on their skin, or accidentally swallow it [6].
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Paraquat: Used on 30% of planted acres — Paraquat is extremely toxic; swallowing even a small amount can be fatal and can severely damage the mouth, digestive tract, kidneys, and lungs. Skin, eye, and inhalation exposure can also be hazardous, so it is classified as a restricted-use pesticide for certified applicators [7].
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Diuron: Used on 21% of planted acres — Exposure may occur through occupational handling as well as residues in food or drinking water. EPA has identified cancer risks of concern in certain exposure scenarios and classifies diuron as likely to be carcinogenic to humans [8].
Cotton is sometimes described as using an enormous share of the world’s pesticides. More recent estimates from the International Cotton Advisory Committee put its share closer to 4% to 5% of global pesticide use [9].
What to Do If You Are Exposed to Pesticides from Cotton Farming
These findings are especially concerning for people who live near cotton farms or work directly with pesticides. Exposure can happen through several routes, including air, soil, water, food, and residues carried home on clothing or shoes. Reducing pesticide exposure often means addressing more than one of these pathways at a time.
At home, using an air purifier with both HEPA and activated carbon filtration may help reduce airborne particles and some chemical pollutants. Filtering drinking water can add another layer of protection, while thoroughly washing produce and choosing organic foods when practical may help reduce exposure to certain pesticide residues.
It can also help to lower your overall chemical burden in other parts of daily life. Choosing natural fibers such as organic cotton, linen, or wool instead of polyester can reduce contact with synthetic materials, while using glass or stainless steel for food and drinks can reduce reliance on plastic.
For people who work directly with pesticides, workplace precautions are especially important. Wearing protective clothing and gloves, washing exposed skin before eating, and changing clothes before entering the home can help reduce personal exposure. It’ll also reduce the amount of pesticide residue brought back to family members!
Can Pesticides Remain in Cotton Products?
Yes. Pesticide residues have been detected in finished cotton products, including clothing, diapers, medical cotton, gauze, and other items that may sit directly against the skin.
One study tested 20 samples of raw cotton and cotton-related products, including medical cotton, gauze, surgical masks, tissue paper, baby diapers, and adult diapers [10].
Researchers detected 14 different pesticides:
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Most Detected — Chlorpyrifos: Chlorpyrifos accounted for 38% of the pesticide detections, far more than any other chemical in the study. It’s an organophosphate insecticide that affects the nervous system by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme needed for normal nerve signaling [11]. EPA has also evaluated concerns about potential neurodevelopmental effects from chlorpyrifos exposure [12].This is also one of the most common insecticides used on golf courses, and has been studied for its link to Parkinson’s Disease development.
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Highest Concentrations — Cypermethrin: Cypermethrin reached 0.416 mg/kg, the highest concentration of any individual pesticide measured in the study. It is a pyrethroid insecticide that acts on the nervous system; higher exposures can cause tremors, abnormal movement, muscle effects, and convulsions, while skin exposure can cause tingling or burning sensations [13].
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Highest Concentrations — Profenofos: Profenofos was detected at concentrations as high as 0.300 mg/kg. Like chlorpyrifos, it is an organophosphate that inhibits cholinesterase and can overstimulate the nervous system. Significant exposure can cause nausea, dizziness, confusion, and, at very high levels, respiratory paralysis [14].
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Also Present — Malathion: Malathion was among the next most frequently detected pesticides. It also interferes with normal nervous-system function; high exposures can cause headaches, dizziness, vomiting, muscle effects, breathing problems, and other signs of organophosphate poisoning [15].
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Also Present — Acetamiprid: This neonicotinoid insecticide was detected in several raw-cotton samples. Scientists continue to raise concerns about acetamiprid's potential effects on the developing nervous system. In 2024, the European Food Safety Authority lowered the amount it considers safe because scientists still had concerns about possible effects on the developing brain and nervous system [16].
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Also Present — Bifenthrin and Lambda-Cyhalothrin: Both are pyrethroid insecticides, the same class as cypermethrin mentioned above. As noted earlier, pyrethroids affect normal nerve signaling and, at high exposures, can cause symptoms such as headache, dizziness, nausea, muscle twitching, and seizures [17].
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Also Present — Methomyl: Methomyl is a carbamate insecticide and cholinesterase inhibitor. EPA says exposure through the mouth, skin, or lungs can overstimulate the nervous system, causing nausea, dizziness, and confusion; very high exposures can lead to respiratory paralysis [18].
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Also Present — Hexachlorobenzene (HCB): Hexachlorobenzene was detected in a baby-diaper sample below the study's quantification limit. Long-term exposure to higher amounts has been associated with liver and other organ effects, and EPA has historically classified it as a probable human carcinogen based largely on animal evidence [19].
The study also detected chlorfluazuron, lufenuron, tricyclazole, flonicamid, and piperonyl butoxide. These chemicals have different health concerns, and some have been studied much more than others.
Of the five, piperonyl butoxide raises the most concern based on the available evidence. It’s been classified by the EPA as a possible human carcinogen, and animal studies have linked repeated exposure to liver effects [20].
In this study, it was found in medical cotton at 0.010 mg/kg. Even small amounts are worth keeping in mind when cotton products come into contact with broken skin or open wounds, where the body’s protective barrier is compromised. When possible, choose organic cotton alternatives and support your body’s natural detoxification systems by reducing exposures in other areas (limit plastic use, eat organically), eating a balanced diet, staying hydrated, and exercising regularly.
What Cotton Products Contained Pesticides In Studies?
Studies have found pesticide residues in both raw cotton and finished cotton products. In the study of cotton products, chlorpyrifos was detected most often. Raw cotton had the highest overall contamination, suggesting that processing may reduce some residues.
In a German government survey of 23 cotton textiles, researchers found no targeted agricultural pesticides in products made from organically grown cotton. By comparison, pesticide residues were detected in products made with conventional cotton [21].
Even products labeled “Organic Cotton” contained pesticide residues, despite Germany operating under stricter European chemical rules than the US. Europe’s REACH framework places tighter controls on certain hazardous chemicals in textiles.
Yet researchers still detected diuron, fipronil, tebufenpyrad, propoxur, and pendimethalin in some cotton products. This discovery is important because labeling does not always tell the whole story.
In Million Marker Research Institute’s testing of 113 U.S. personal care and cleaning products, more than 90% contained at least one unlisted chemical [22]. Testing clothes for pesticide residues isn’t common practice in the US, although research is increasing.
However, research specifically testing finished cotton sheets, pillowcases, and cotton-filled mattresses is much more limited. That means we cannot say that every conventional cotton product contains pesticide residues, but the studies that do exist show that residues can remain in some finished products.
For items that sit against the skin for long periods, we would skip vague claims like “natural cotton” and look for certified organic cotton backed by stronger standards for both farming and textile processing
Is Organic Cotton Pesticide-Free?
Not exactly. Shopping for organic products is an excellent start for minimizing pesticide exposure. However, organic cotton is not necessarily grown without any pest-control substances.
Under USDA organic standards, farmers generally cannot use synthetic pesticides unless a substance is specifically approved on the National List. For example, glyphosate is not allowed in USDA organic crop production.
Organic rules also require cotton fields to be free of prohibited substances for at least 36 months before an organic crop is harvested. Farmers are expected to start with approaches such as crop rotation, beneficial insects, physical weed control, and other pest-management practices.
Some approved pesticides can still be used in organic farming. The key difference is that organic cotton is grown under strict limits on most conventional synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, and without genetically engineered cotton. So “organic” does not mean no pest-control substances are ever used. It means the types of chemicals allowed are much more restricted.
What Other Chemicals Are Commonly Found in Cotton Products?
The chemical story doesn’t stop once the pesticides are sprayed, and the cotton leaves the field. Dyes, printing, softeners, wrinkle-resistant treatments, coatings, and other manufacturing steps can all add substances to the finished fabric.
In one 2024 study, researchers tested nine cotton clothing samples and seven cotton pads and identified 36 different substances. Some came from the cotton itself. Others were more likely linked to manufacturing or the surrounding environment.
Here are some of the chemical groups worth knowing about.
Phthalates
Printing, coatings, packaging, and other manufacturing steps can introduce phthalates into clothing. These chemicals are often used to make plastics softer and more flexible. Some phthalates can interfere with hormones and have been linked to reproductive effects [24].
In a 2024 study of cotton products, researchers frequently found two phthalates called DIBP and DBP [25]. Another study of 24 cotton garments made for infants detected several phthalates, including DEHP [26]. Phthalates in infant clothing are very alarming, as their bodies are still developing, and these chemicals are known to mimic or block hormones.
Clothing can also pick phthalates up after it is made. Cotton can absorb some chemicals from the surrounding air almost like a sponge. So a phthalate found in a shirt may have come from manufacturing, packaging, storage, or the environment around it.
Formaldehyde
Wrinkle-resistant clothing can come with an extra layer of chemical treatment. Formaldehyde has been used in finishes that help fabric resist wrinkling, shrinking, and creasing. That is why it has long been associated with labels such as “permanent press,” “easy care,” and “no-iron.”
One study detected formaldehyde in 20% of the textiles researchers tested [27]. If reducing unnecessary chemical treatments is a priority, untreated cotton is a simpler option than clothing marketed for wrinkle resistance or easy care.
Dyes, Azo Dyes, and Aromatic Amines
That bright red shirt or printed pair of pajamas takes more than cotton fiber to make. Dyes, inks, and other chemicals are used to create color and patterns.
A 2026 study of 60 children’s garments detected several groups of chemicals linked with textile manufacturing, including quinolines, aromatic amines, nitrobenzenes, and phthalates [28]. Some chemicals in these groups have been linked to cancer, hormone disruption, reproductive effects, skin sensitization, or genetic damage.
Light-colored cotton had the fewest and lowest levels of detected chemicals among the materials tested. Many chemicals also washed out of cotton more easily than they did from polyester. This conclusion is yet another reason to favor organic cotton over synthetic fabrics!
You will rarely find the exact dyes used listed on a clothing tag. This is one area where stronger third-party textile certifications can provide information shoppers cannot easily get on their own. Learn more about sustainable clothes shopping here.
Nonylphenol Ethoxylates
Even washing and dyeing fabric can require extra chemicals. Nonylphenol ethoxylates, or NPEs, have been used like detergents during textile manufacturing to help clean and process fabric.
Researchers have detected NPE residues in finished clothing. These chemicals can break down into nonylphenol, a persistent substance that can disrupt hormones in aquatic animals. Several markets have restricted their use because of environmental concerns.
Again, you are unlikely to see NPEs on a clothing tag. Manufacturing standards matter because many of these chemicals are invisible to the shopper.
PFAS
Waterproof and stain-resistant clothing may get those features from added chemical treatments. One group historically used for this purpose is PFAS, short for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances. These chemicals are used commercially because they resist water, oil, grease, and stains. Some PFAS chemicals have even been added to approved pesticides in 2026.
PFAS are not automatically present in every cotton T-shirt. They are more relevant in clothing or textiles marketed as water-resistant, stain-resistant, or treated for other performance features.
If you don't need those features, skipping products marketed as such is a simple way to avoid an extra layer of chemical treatment. OEKO-TEX Organic Cotton, for example, includes requirements for PFAS, along with pesticides, certain dyes, lead, cadmium, and other substances.
How Is Cotton Bleached, and What Are the Health Concerns?
That bright white cotton shirt did not necessarily start out that way. Raw cotton naturally contains pigments, waxes, and other plant material. Unbleached cotton is typically a spectrum of beiges, grays, and off-whites. Manufacturers often bleach it before dyeing or finishing the fabric.
Hydrogen peroxide is now the most common cotton bleaching agent, but chlorine-based bleaches such as sodium hypochlorite are still used in some textile production [28].
Chlorine-based bleach can be harsh on both people and the environment. Sodium hypochlorite can irritate the skin, eyes, nose, throat, and lungs, while higher exposures can cause chemical burns and serious respiratory injury [29].
If chlorine gas is released, exposure can lead to coughing, choking, chest discomfort, airway narrowing, and fluid buildup in the lungs. Repeated workplace exposure has also been associated with chronic airway inflammation and irritant-induced asthma [30].
Hydrogen peroxide is often used as an alternative because it produces fewer chlorinated byproducts, but concentrated industrial solutions still carry risks. They can irritate the skin, eyes, throat, and respiratory tract, and stronger exposures can cause serious burns, eye damage, and lung irritation [31].
Chlorine-based bleaching can also create environmental pollution. During textile processing, it can form chlorinated wastewater byproducts known as adsorbable organic halides, or AOX [32]. These compounds can be difficult to remove during wastewater treatment and may persist long enough to harm aquatic ecosystems.
How to Shop for Sustainable Cotton
There is no single cotton label that tells you everything. Different certifications answer different questions. Here are some tips for shopping for low-tox cotton.
Start With GOTS-Certified Organic Cotton
If you want both organic farming standards and tighter controls on textile processing, GOTS-certified organic cotton is one of the more comprehensive options [33].
The Global Organic Textile Standard covers post-harvest textile processing using certified organic fibers. It includes requirements for chemical inputs, wastewater, environmental practices, and social criteria.
Under GOTS Version 8.0, a product carrying the “Organic” grade must contain at least 95% certified organic fiber. Products labeled “Made with organic materials” must contain at least 70%.
GOTS also prohibits or restricts many chemical classes during processing. Its criteria restrict formaldehyde, certain chlorinated compounds, alkylphenol ethoxylates, and chemicals classified as known, presumed, or suspected endocrine disruptors.
Look for OEKO-TEX Organic Cotton
OEKO-TEX Organic Cotton adds another useful layer of verification. It traces organic cotton from farm through finished product and includes testing for pesticides and other substances.
Its current requirements address pesticides, certain banned azo colorants, PFAS, lead, cadmium, and genetically modified cotton.
This is different from OEKO-TEX STANDARD 100. STANDARD 100 focuses on testing textiles for harmful substances but does not, by itself, certify that the cotton was organically grown.
Know What OCS Does
The Organic Content Standard, or OCS, verifies that certified organically grown material moves through the supply chain and that the final product contains the claimed amount.
It does not regulate chemical use or the broader environmental and social impacts of textile processing. OCS can help answer, “Is this really organic cotton?” It does not tell you everything about how that cotton was turned into clothing.
Better Cotton Is Not Organic Cotton
Better Cotton is another label you may see, but it is not an organic certification. Its agricultural standard includes Integrated Pest Management and encourages farmers to combine biological, cultural, and physical approaches to reduce reliance on synthetic pesticides.
It also includes requirements related to highly hazardous pesticides. While that can improve farming practices, a Better Cotton label shouldn’t be read as meaning that no synthetic pesticides were used.
What If Certified Organic Cotton Is Not Available?
Price and availability matter. You do not need to replace everything you own or turn shopping for a T-shirt into a research project.
If a strong certification is not available, keep the product simple. Look for lightly colored, 100% cotton without stain-resistant, wrinkle-resistant, antimicrobial, waterproof, or other performance treatments you do not need.
Washing new clothing before wearing it is also a practical step. Researchers found that many textile chemicals washed out of cotton more easily than polyester. This can be especially useful for underwear, pajamas, sheets, baby clothes, and other items worn directly against the skin.
Also, keep using the cotton products you already own. Buying fewer items, keeping them longer, repairing clothing, and shopping secondhand can reduce environmental impacts without creating an entirely new wardrobe.
What Is the Most Sustainable Cotton to Buy?
Cotton may be plant-based, but the finished product can have a much longer chemical history. Pesticides can be used in the field. Then bleaching, dyeing, printing, softening, and other treatments can introduce a different set of chemicals during manufacturing.
When buying something new, look first for GOTS-certified organic cotton or OEKO-TEX Organic Cotton when available. OCS is useful for verifying organic content, but it does not regulate textile-processing chemicals. If certification is not realistic for your budget, choose simpler cotton products without unnecessary performance finishes and wash new textiles before using them.
A “100% cotton” label tells you the fiber. Stronger certification can tell you much more about how that cotton got from the field to your home.
Test Your Body for Phthalates and Other Hormone Disruptors
If you’re trying to reduce your exposure to phthalates and other harmful chemicals, it helps to know where to focus first. Million Marker’s Exposure Test measures levels of several common hormone-disrupting chemicals in your body, giving you a clearer picture of your recent exposures.
Instead of spending money replacing everything at once, your results can help you identify which exposures may deserve the most immediate attention. We can guide you toward more targeted, affordable changes to your products, routines, and environment.
Resources
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